En dépit de leurs différences biophysiologiques, les hommes disposent tous d'une intuition du bien : bien en direction duquel l'humanité est appelée à travailler parle biais de l'intelligence et de la raison. Cette "loi naturelle", pensée depuis des siècles, a été analysée avec vigueur depuis quatre décennies. La loi naturelle est-elle une éthique universelle? La tradition chrétienne tente d'y répondre. A l'heure d'une société globalisée, où le caractère subversif des ambitions post-humanistes s'affirme, la loi naturelle suffit-elle à répondre aux enjeux (...) éthiques contemporains? (shrink)

To remain financially viable and continue to accomplish their social missions, nonprofits are increasingly adopting a hybrid organizational form that combines commercial and social welfare logics. While studies recognize that individual organizations vary in how they incorporate and manage hybridity, variation at the level of the organizational form remains poorly understood. Existing studies tend to treat forms as either hybrid or not, limiting our understanding of the different ways a hybrid form may combine multiple logics and how such combinations evolve (...) over time. Analyzing 14 years of data from Canadian nonprofits seeking funding for social enterprise activities, we identify two novel dimensions along which a hybrid form may vary—the locus of integration and the scope of logics. We further find that as the commercial logic became more widespread within the nonprofit sector, variants of the hybrid form shifted from primarily emphasizing the commercial logic to more equally emphasizing both the commercial and social welfare logics and integrating the two logics in multiple ways. Drawing on these findings, we contribute a multi-dimensional conception of hybrid forms and theorize how form-level variation in hybridity can arise from organization-level cognitive challenges that actors face when combining seemingly incompatible logics. We then build on this theorizing to offer an alternative perspective on commercialization of the nonprofit sector as a contextually dependent rather than universal trend. (shrink)

Le but de l’article est double. Il s’agit d’abord de présenter la position du maître ès arts Jean de Jandun (m. 1328) concernant les rapports entre métaphysique et politique, puis d’indiquer comment sa solution, fondée sur l’idée d’un agir « en intention seconde », en fait l’héritier d’Averroès et, plus lointainement, de la doctrine de la providence d’Alexandre d’Aphrodise. Si le philosophe doit occuper un rang fondamental dans la cité en tant qu’il enseigne au prince ce qu’il faut savoir (...) de Dieu, cette fonction ne le subordonne aucunement puisqu’il n’est en vue des autres que secunda intentione. Comment Jean de Jandun l’explicite-t-il? Et que doit-il au providentialisme métaphysique de ses prédécesseurs grec et arabe? C’est à cela que l’article est consacré. (shrink)

Toujours, dans toute proposition affirmative veritable, necessaire ou contingente, universelle ou singuliere, la notion du predicat est comprise en quelque facon dans celle du sujet, praedicatum inest subjecto, ou bien je ne sais ce que c'est que la vetite. Parce qu'elles mettaient principalement l'accent sur les liaisons conceptuelles, les precisions de ce genre ont ete interpretees comme autant d'indices permettant de reconstituer le contenu du predicat de verite a partir de presupposes coherentistes. Dans le concensus qui s'est etabli sur ce (...) point, le role hermeneutique tres excessif accorde a la notion de systeme a eu une portee aussi considerable que le contenu des quelques textes generalement allegues. Si on admet, au contraire, qu'il y a bien une doctrine leibnizienne de la verite, alors on est amene a inscrire la position de Leibniz dans le contexte du debat relatif a l'adaequatio rei et a souligner davantage ce qui l'apparente a une theorie de la verite-correspondance. Cet argument principal est soutenu par des analyses de detail dans la logique. Un attention particuliere est apportee aux valeurs des variables du nouveau calcul, a la fonction du predicat de possibilite, au probleme relatif a la constantia subjecti et au statut des entites intensionnelles. L'image de l'ontologie leibnizienne s'en trouve modifiee et precisee: a la fois possibiliste et factualiste, elle est traversee de tensions importantes et occupe une place tout a fait singuliere dans cette partie de la philosophie qui connait aujourd'hui un si profond renouveau. (shrink)

Jean de Jandun (ca. 1285/1328), maître es arts à l'Université de Paris durant la première moitié du quatorzième siècle, est considéré par l'historiographie contemporaine comme le principal tenant de l'"averroi͏̈sme latin", c'est-à-dire comme le défenseur majeur d'une psychologie extrême dans laquelle l'intellect est unique, éternel, et séparé par essence des hommes. Sa noétique procède en réalité d'une réarticulation ou d'une reprise active du corpus latin d'Averroès et l'on étudie sur trois plans (le rapport au corps, l'intervention de l'image, la (...) production de la pensée) comment elle s'élabore et chemine à l'écart du Grand Commentaire sur le De anima laissé par le Cordouan. La notion de subiectum sert de fil directeur, elle vaut chez Averroès à la fois pour l'intellect sujet-substrat des intelligibles et pour le phantasme qui sert de base à la formation du concept. On décrit donc quels "transferts du sujet" s'opèrent dans la relance de la noétique rushdienne, pour relever des glissements et finalement pointer la mise en place de problématiques nouvelles et constitutives, aussi, de notre modernité. Car, en reconnaissant à l'"averroi͏̈sme" une production réellement philosophique qu'on tendait à lui refuser, on fait apparaître combien l'oeuvre de Jean est solidaire de l'invention ou de l'accentuation d'une question capitale dont nous sommes héritiers : celle du sujet humain des pensées, celle de l'assomption de l'homme comme sujet. (shrink)

Si l’on peut parler d’un désir de Dieu inscrit dans le coeur de l’homme, qu’en est-il du côté de Dieu ? Dieu désire-t-il entrer en communion avec chacun de nous ? Y aurait-il du désir dans la Trinité sainte ? Après avoir élaboré une nouvelle conception du désir, Jean-Baptiste Lecuit s’interroge sur le désir de l’homme pour Dieu : en quoi consiste-t-il ? Quel exaucement lui est-il offert ? Par quelles voies ? Est-il naturel à tout être humain (...) ? En un renversement de perspective, l’auteur s’interroge aussi sur la possibilité que Dieu désire l’être humain et son salut. Il met au jour un courant ininterrompu de Pères de l’Église, de mystiques et de théologiens qui, malgré l’avis contraire d’Augustin et de Thomas d’Aquin, n’a cessé de reconnaître et d’annoncer un tel désir, de façon toujours plus insistante. Ce parcours passionnant dans la Tradition de l’Église débouche sur une réflexion justifiant l’attribution à Dieu d’un désir pour l’homme et montrant sa portée théologique et spirituelle. Carme déchaux de la Province de Paris, Jean-Baptiste Lecuit est professeur de théologie de l’université catholique de Lille. Il a publié aux Éditions du Cerf, L’Anthropologie théologique à la lumière de la psychanalyse (2007) ; Quand Dieu habite en l’homme (2010). (shrink)

The ontology of Stoic causes and effects was clearly anti-platonic, since the Stoics did not want to admit that any incorporeal entity could have an effect. However, by asserting that any cause was the cause of an incorporeal effect, they returned to Plato’s syntax of causes in the Sophist, whose doctrine of the asymmetry of nouns and verbs identified names with the agents and verbs with the actions. The ontological asymmetry of causes and effects blocked the multiplication of causes by (...) reducing it to an efficient cause. However, while ontology and syntax merged into the doctrine of the effect as an incorporeal predicate, this was further complicated by a relational description of a cause as the effect of a body on a body and by the distinction of causes. Since there are different kinds of causes, not every kind of cause has the same syntactical role in the nexus of causal relations. This refinement of the original syntactical model presumably allowed the Stoics to give a more coherent view of human action than is usually assumed. (shrink)

Four experiments examined the strategies that individuals develop in sentential reasoning. They led to the discovery of five different strategies. According to the theory proposed in the paper, each of the strategies depends on component tactics, which all normal adults possess, and which are based on mental models. Reasoners vary their use of tactics in ways that have no deterministic account. This variation leads different individuals to assemble different strategies, which include the construction of incremental diagrams corresponding to mental models, (...) and the pursuit of the consequences of a single model step by step. Moreover, the difficulty of a problem (i.e., the number of mental models required by the premises) predisposes reasoners towards certain strategies. Likewise, the sentential connectives in the premises also bias reasoners towards certain strategies, e.g., conditional premises tend to elicit reasoning step by step whereas disjunctive premises tend to elicit incremental diagrams. (shrink)

This article aims to interpret Hegel'sPhilosophy of Historyin order to understand how Hegel can propose a historical comprehension of normativity. Shedding light on the notion of the problem (Aufgabe) in Hegel's philosophy, I maintain that people invent and transform their norms throughout history when they encounter problematic situations. This perspective makes it possible to read the Hegelian philosophy of history in line with current anti-metaphysical interpretations of Hegel.

When is a conclusion worth deriving? We claim that a conclusion is worth deriving to the extent that it is relevant in the sense of relevance theory (Sperber & Wilson, 1995). To support this hypothesis, we experiment with ''indeterminate relational problems'' where we ask participants what, if anything, follows from premises such as A is taller than B, A is taller than C . With such problems, the indeterminate response that nothing follows is common, and we explain why. We distinguish (...) several types of determinate conclusions and show that their rate is a function of their relevance. We argue that by appropriately changing the formulation of the premises, the relevance of determinate conclusions can be increased, and the rate of indeterminate responses thereby reduced. We contrast these relevance-based predictions with predictions based on linguistic congruence. (shrink)

When the meta-philosophies of Nominalism and Realism are compared, it is often said that Nominalism is motivated by a methodology of ontological economy, while Realism would be motivated by an appeal to Common Sense. In this paper, I argue that this association is misguided. After briefly comparing the meta-philosophy of Common Sense and the meta-philosophy of economy, I show that the core motivation in favour of Realism relies in fact in a principle of economy which violates the methodology of Common (...) Sense. I conclude that Common Sense philosophers should endorse Nominalism. (shrink)

This paper examines the history of animal behavior studies after the synthesis period. Three episodes are considered: the adoption of the theory of natural selection, the mathematization of ideas, and the spread of molecular methods in behavior studies. In these three episodes, students of behavior adopted practices and standards developed in population ecology and population genetics. While they borrowed tools and methods from these fields, they made distinct uses that set them relatively apart and led them to contribute, in their (...) own way, to evolutionary theory. These episodes also highlight some limitations of “conjunction narratives” centered on the relation between a discipline and the modern synthesis. A trend in conjunction narratives is to interpret any development related to evolution in a discipline as an “extension,” an “integration,” or as a “delayed” synthesis. I here suggest that this can lead to underestimate discontinuities in the history of evolutionary biology. (shrink)

Expatriate managers of international businesses in emerging countries often struggle to mobilize their workforces. They sometimes perceive profound cultural differences as a barrier to the progress of their organizations. Some international businesses may adopt a paternalistic attitude toward their employees; but this questionable strategy brings mixed results. Are there ways out of paternalism for international businesses in emerging areas? This paper examines the diverging views held by foreign managers and local personnel of a foreign-owned production plant in Mexico, which managed (...) to mobilize its workforce by building a strong sense of community, allowing a certain form of collective control to replace the paternalistic model, with its bonds of personal allegiance. Contrasting perspectives between Mexican and foreign employees show that intercultural misunderstandings, rather than the peculiarities of the local culture, are the greatest challenge to cooperation. (shrink)

Dariusz Łukasiewicz has investigated in depth the “Argument from Chance” which argues that the data revealing chance in the world are incompatible with Divine Providence. Łukasiewicz agrees that these data undermine the traditional model of Providence—a fine-grained model in which every single detail is controlled by God—but maintains that they are not incompatible with a coarse-grained model—in which God leaves to chance many aspects of history (including some horrendous evils). Furthermore, Łukasiewicz provides independent reasons to prefer this coarse-grained model. Even (...) though I agree that a maximally fine-grained model is undermined by the scientific data, I argue that this is no sufficient reason to adopt a model as coarse-grained as Łukasiewicz’s. I propose a model of intermediate level of fine-grainedness which could avoid the drawbacks of both extremes, and seems to me to provide a more traditional approach to the problem of evil. (shrink)

Dans cet article, je discute l’épistémologie de Pascal Engel, en particulier sa stratégie de réponse aux arguments sceptiques dans Va Savoir!. Après avoir présenté de manière synthétique les grands axes de cette stratégie, je reviens avec plus d’attention sur deux éléments de cette stratégie avec lesquels je suis en désaccord : le rejet par Engel de tout principe de réflexivité épistémique, et le rejet par Engel d’une défense « forte » du sens commun. Je défends qu’un certain principe de réflexivité (...) ne peut pas être raisonnablement rejeté ; puis je montre que l’épistémologie d’Engel ne permet pas d’apporter une réponse satisfaisante au défi sceptique que pose le principe de Méta-Cohérence. Enfin, je soutiens que la seule manière de répondre de manière satisfaisante à ce défi est de recourir à une défense « forte » du sens commun, c’est-à-dire à une stratégie dans laquelle les propositions de sens commun sont justifiées parce qu’elles sont de sens commun. (shrink)

Plusieurs auteurs anciens attribuent aux stoïciens une distinction entre le logos endiathetos et le logos proféré, qui est souvent assimilée à l’opposition entre le langage proféré et la raison intérieure, et tend à confondre la position stoïcienne avec l’identification platonicienne de la pensée à un dialogue intérieur. Mais, tandis que le logos endiathetos est clairement identifié à la capacité humaine de raisonner, il n’est pas présenté comme un dialogue intérieur. Il réside d’abord dans une certaine disposition de l’homme à enchaîner (...) des énoncés de manière logique, tandis que le langage proféré des hommes repose sur la capacité d’attacher un sens au mot, d’émettre le langage depuis la pensée. Par ailleurs, Chrysippe semble bien avoir reconnu un langage intérieur, mais celui-ci n’est pas identifiable au logos endiathetos ni à la pensée, dont il est nettement distingué, et il est encore moins un dialogue. (shrink)

A minha ideia: aquisição e atribuição no Pensamento de Averróis.

Résumé Tout semble exclure le « corps amoureux » de l’univers froid et désincarné du cinéaste Robert Bresson (1901-1999). Une analyse attentive révèle toutefois la présence dans son œuvre d’une érotique singulière. Grâce au contrôle absolu de ses acteurs, qu’il appelle ses « modèles », le réalisateur invente un corps amoureux « cinématographiquement parlant ». Ses personnages, avec leur phrasé neutre et automatique, nouent en effet une relation fusionnelle avec la caméra : se donnerait ainsi à entendre, grâce à une (...) esthétique attentive à ses caractéristiques intimes, la voix de cette miraculeuse machine que reste le cinématographe. (shrink)

Pendant cinq siecles, de 300 av. J.C. jusqu'au crepuscule de Marc Aurele, la philosophie stoicienne domina la culture antique. Encore aujourd'hui, notre grammaire, notre logique et notre linguistique sont les heritieres plus ou moins conscientes de l'une des trois parties de cette philosophie, la dialectique, qui fut, dans sa forme classique, l'oeuvre de Chrysippe (280-204 av. J.C.). Ce livre est la premiere reconstruction synthetique de la dialectique stoicienne dans son ensemble. Son point de vue est en outre entierement nouveau. En (...) effet, pour l'auteur, les stoiciens n'avaient pas une logique au sens moderne du terme, mais une dialectique, c'est-a-dire une technique de l'argumentation dialoguee. Sa conception complexe, a premiere vue multiple et equivoque, recoit ainsi un eclairage inedit, qui permet de comprendre son originalite et d'en reinterpreter la place dans l'ensemble du systeme. Cela nous permet aussi de mieux comprendre le sens des disciplines qui en sont les heritieres infideles. (shrink)

Leibniz a tenté de donner une formulation logique de l'ordre, en cherchant à spécifier de la manière la plus générale possible, le sens des termes « antérieur » , « postérieur » et « conjoint ». L'analyse de ces termes tient en trois points. 1) Deux êtres étant donnés, est antérieur par nature (natura prius) celui qui est plus simple, c'est-à-dire celui dont l'analyse requiert un plus petit nombre d'opérations de l'esprit. Par suite, les êtres qui sont conjoints (simul) doivent (...) nécessairement se caractériser par le même degré de composition. 2) Le degré de composition d'un être correspond à son degré de perfection. Si les êtres antérieurs sont plus simples, les êtres postérieurs sont donc plus parfaits. 3) Enfin, deux êtres étant donnés, tels que l'un est plus simple et l'autre plus parfait, on dira que ces êtres diffèrent par le temps si en outre ils se contredisent et, réciproquement, que deux êtres compossibles se contredisent si et seulement s'ils ne sont pas tempore simul, ou s'ils n'appartiennent pas au même « état de l'univers ». Une telle analyse a le mérite de donner un exemple précis et relativement développé de ce que peut être le traitement leibnizien d'une relation particulière. Cette relation reçoit dans la mathesis, quand il s'agit de caractériser l'ordre axiomatique des notions incomplètes, une interprétation satisfaisante, à laquelle Leibniz n'a, semble-t-il, jamais renoncé. Mais l'interprétation métaphysique des termes prius, posterius et simul, qu'on trouve esquissée dans certains fragments des années 1680, soulève des problèmes insurmontables. It is well known that Leibniz's logic is grounded in the inherence of the predicate in the subject and in the compossibility of notions. It naturally stresses, therefore, relations of equivalence, rather than of order. Nevertheless, Leibniz provided a logical analysis of order, i.e. an account of the meaning of "prior", "subsequent", "concomitant". His account comprises three points: 1) Given two beings, the one that is more simple (i.e. the one whose analysis requires less operations of the mind) is prior by nature (natura prius). Hence, concomitant (simul) being. 2) The degree of composition of being corresponds to its degree of perfection. Hence, prior beings being simpler, subsequent beings are more perfect. 3) Given two beings such that one is simpler and the other more perfect, they differ temporally if they also contradict each other; conversely, two compossible beings contradict each other if, and only if, they are not simultaneous (i.e. if they do not belong to the same "state of the universe"). It will be shown that this relation makes it possible to characterize the axiomatic order of incomplete notions (in the field of the mathesis universalis). But the attempt to explain the terms prius, posterius and simul in a metaphysical manner, i.e. by laying the stress on the order among substances, raises grave philosophical problems. (shrink)

I would like warmly to thank Massimo Mugnai. The care that he put into read ing my book, his suggestions, his clarifications, and even his criticisms are a great encouragement to me.

Les Sic se sont fondées sur l'analyse des activités concrètes de communication et une attitude d'interdisciplinarité, plus que par une interrogation spécifiquement communicationnelle. Mais cela a permis des constructions spécifiques dans la mesure où les Sic accordent une grande importance à l'articulation entre objets techniques, systèmes d'actions et circulation du sensThe Information and Communication Sciences have been defined as an interdisciplinary field, and tend to bring together heterogeneous paradigms. Their main characteristic is less "communicational way" of building scientific objects than (...) an alliance within actual communication domains and a meta-theoretical standpoint - interdisciplinarity. The originality of ISCs is based on explaining the complex relations between communication techniques, social strategies, signs and signification. (shrink)

The literature on organizational ethics has paved the way for a situated and intersubjective understanding of ethics through caring practices. In this article, we try to extend this perspective by looking beyond the interactions of caregivers among themselves or with care seekers to reveal ethics as the ongoing collective accomplishment of a variety of actors. We do so by mobilizing Strauss’s theoretical perspective of articulation work in the context of healthcare. Based on an ethnography, we show how actors of care (...) (e.g., nurses, caregivers, or doctors) operate within care arrangements that need to be frequently rearticulated to face ethical threats and protect their patients’ well-being. We distinguish three types of rearticulation corresponding to different degrees of rearticulation, individual actor stance, and specific ways of working things out. We discuss their implications for the maintenance of organizational ethics. (shrink)

La compréhension du siècle des Lumières passe par la lecture de cette oeuvre, qui jette dès 1737 le discrédit sur la bonne nature de la raison. On y lit le désaveu des Lumières par elles-mêmes, désaveu qui signe peut-être leur véritable et paradoxal triomphe.

The article analyses the idea that according to the averroist Jean de Jandun, Master of Arts in Paris at the beginning of the 14th century, human beings are composed of a «double form» the separated intellect on the one hand, the cogitative soul on the other hand. After recalling several major accounts of the time, we explore Jean's reading of Averroes' major conceptions concerning the problem. Finally, we challenge the idea according to which we observe in his writings (...) the radical thesis of a sometimes cogitating sometimes thinking «double human being» that makes of the homo intelligens a punctual and exclusive new being, which is accidentally produced while the thinking takes place. (shrink)

Classical anthropology in East Africa has tended to associate pastoralism with a masculine ideology. Among the Mursi people however, women are clearly associated with success in the pastoral economy, if one considers the different ages in the life cycle. The social position of the Mother-in-law and the Elder, the culmination of a process of maturing which stresses social organization by age-set, suggests that gender relations may be a fruitful subject of inquiry. These personae allow us to understand why certain older (...) women achieve social positions usually accorded to men, but also why, in the final analysis, these women remain subordinated to the (male) Elder, because of a time lag vis-a-vis their male equivalents of the same age in reaching maturity. The article will first consider the political order resulting from differences in maturity between warriors and elders. Other types of cross-sex relation, such as those between young girls and warriors will then be described, before locating the place of the Elders and the Mothers-in-law vis-a-vis the group as a whole, and its animal herds. (shrink)

The mechanism of emotions in Stoicism has been presented by Graver a decade ago as relying on a “pathetic syllogism” having as its premises a judgment about the goodness of a certain type of object and a judgment that it is proper to have a certain emotional response to that object. It is true that each emotion is an irrational impulse resulting not only from the opinion that something is good but also from the opinion that it is appropriate to (...) have a certain type of emotional response to that object, as shown by Graver. However, the present paper intends to present an alternative to Graver’s view by reducing the mechanism of emotion to the mechanism of all impulses: each impulse is an assent given to the impression that it is befitting for me to accomplish certain actions, and what Cicero and Stobaeus describe is not the combination of two premises resulting in an emotion as a conclusion, but the idea that it is necessary to give one’s assent to the impulsive impression to produce an emotion. Likewise, in Seneca, it is in such a way that a preliminary form of impulse is transformed into an emotion. A universal judgment about an object being good or a reaction being appropriate is certainly involved in certain emotions, but not in all of them, since many emotions depend on a fresh impression that overwhelms the general rational judgments of someone due to one’s insufficient mental preparation and to the weakness of one’s mind. In those cases, an emotion may involve the impression that a behaviour or a feeling is appropriate without endorsing the idea that it is universally good or appropriate, since the mechanism of the emotion relies on the vividness of one particular impression even against one’s system of beliefs. (shrink)

Last paragraphe: Finally, we need to take on board the strange and disturbing fact that the modern destruction of environments has occurred not as if nature counted for nothing but, on the contrary, has occurred in a world of longstanding climatic theories that have earmarked environmental objects as the very things that produce humankind. Modern man, oblivious of the impact of his actions and blinded by his faith in progress and polarized vision of the world? Our postmodernity also has its (...) own mythologies. (shrink)

Any philosopher who defends Free Will should have an answer to the epistemological question: “how do we know that we have such a capacity?” A traditional answer to this question is that we have some form of introspective access to our own Free Will. In recent times though, many philosophers have considered any such introspectionist theory as so obviously wrong that it hardly needs discussion, especially when Free Will is understood in libertarian terms. One of the rare objections to appear (...) as an explicit argument was proposed by van Inwagen in his Essay on Free Will. In this paper, I address van Inwagen’s anti-introspection argument; I argue that it is both inconsistent with his overall treatment of the Existence Question (namely, with his defence of the existence of Free Will from reflections about morality), and inconclusive in itself (at least for anyone not ready to endorse general scepticism about perception). In passing, I give a clarification of the notion of Introspection, in the case of Freedom, that also sets a more favourable stage for the evaluation of further objections. (shrink)

The present report is a, somewhat lengthy, addendum to [4], where the elimination of cuts from derivations in sequent calculus for classical logic was studied 'from the point of view of linear logic'. To that purpose a formulation of classical logic was used, that - as in linear logic - distinguishes between multiplicative and additive versions of the binary connectives. The main novelty here is the observation that this type-distinction is not essential: we can allow classical sequent derivations to use (...) any combination of additive and multiplicative introduction rules for each of the connectives, and still have strong normalization and confluence of tq-reductions. We give a detailed description of the simulation of tq-reductions by means of reductions of the interpretation of any given classical proof as a proof net of PN2 (the system of second order proof nets for linear logic), in which moreover all connectives can be taken to be of one type, e.g., multiplicative. We finally observe that dynamically the different logical cuts, as determined by the four possible combinations of introduction rules, are independent: it is not possible to simulate them internally, i.e., by only one specific combination, and structural rules. (shrink)

This paper gives a detailed narrative of a controversial empirical research in postwar population genetics, the analysis of the cytological polymorphisms of an Australian grasshopper, Moraba scurra. This research intertwined key technical developments in three research areas during the 1950s and 1960s: it involved Dobzhansky’s empirical research program on cytological polymorphisms, the mathematical theory of natural selection in two-locus systems, and the building of reliable estimates of natural selection in the wild. In the mid-1950s the cytologist Michael White discovered an (...) interesting case of epistasis in populations of Moraba scurra. These observations received a wide diffusion when theoretical population geneticist Richard Lewontin represented White’s data on adaptive topographies. These topographies connected the information on the genetic structure of these grasshopper populations with the formal framework of theoretical population genetics. As such, they appeared at the time as the most successful application of two-locus models of natural selection to an empirical study system. However, this connection generated paradoxical results: in the landscapes, all grasshopper populations were located on a ridge while they were expected to reach a peak. This puzzling result fueled years of research and triggered a controversy attracting contributors from Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom. While the original problem seemed, at first, purely empirical, the subsequent controversy affected the main mathematical tools used in the study of two-gene systems under natural selection. Adaptive topographies and their underlying mathematical structure, Wright’s mean fitness equations, were submitted to close scrutiny. Suspicion eventually shifted to the statistical machinery used in data analysis, reflecting the crucial role of statistical inference in applied population genetics. In the 1950s and 1960s, population geneticists were not simply in search for new generalizations about the evolutionary process and for new evidence about genetic variation: struggling against statistical artifacts, they were searching for reliable tests and descriptors to analyze their data. (shrink)